Literary Elements for Pre AP
The following are a list of terms we will use throughout the year. They are all listed below and can be referred to anytime you need them.
Alliteration—the repetition of the beginning consonant sound in series of two or more words.
∙ Let us go forth to lead the land we love. J.F. Kennedy, Inaugural
Allusion—makes reference to a historical or literary person, place, or event with which the reader is assumed to be familiar. Many works of prose and poetry contain allusions to the Bible or to classical mythology.
∙ Allusions can be historical, (like referring to Hitler), literary (like referring to Kurtz in Heart of Darkness), religious (like referring to Noah and the flood), or mythical (like referring to Atlas).
Analogy—makes a comparison between two or more things that are similar in some ways but otherwise unlike. It is an extended form of figurative language, often used to prove a point.
Antagonist—The antagonist (bad guy) is the character who is placed in opposition to the protagonist (good guy). He is a rival or enemy of the protagonist.
∙ The antagonist in Tolsoy’s “The Long Exile” is Makar Semyonof.
Archetype—an image, plot, character, or descriptive detail that occurs frequently in literature, myth, religion, or folklore, and causes emotion in the reader because it awakens an image in the unconscious memory. The archetype is universally recognized, transcending cultures and time. The symbols that exist in the collective unconsciousness of people include symbols in art, literature, myths, religion that reoccur over time and across cultures. All archetypes must be primordial, universal, and recurring. There are three types of archetypes: situational, character, and symbolic.
1—situational archetypes
a—the quest—this motif describes the search for someone or some talisman which when found and brought back, will restore fertility to a waste land, the desolation of which is mirrored by a leader’s illness and disability
b—the task—to save the kingdom, to win the fair lady, to identify himself so the may re-assume his rightful position the hero must perform some nearly superhuman deed or the function of the ultimate goal
c—the initiation—this usually take the form of an initiation into adult life. The adolescent comes into his/her maturity with new awareness and problems along with new hope for the community
d—the journey—the journey sends the hero in search for some truth or information necessary to restore fertility to the kingdom. Usually the hero descends into a real or psychological hell and is forced to discover the blackest truths, quite often concerning his faults. Once the hero is at his lowest point, he must accept personal responsibility to return to the world of the living. A second use of this pattern is the depiction of a limited number of travelers on a sea voyage, bus ride, or any other trip for the purpose of isolating them and using them as a microcosm of society.
e—the fall—this archetype describes a descent from a higher to a lower state of being. The experience involves a defilement and/or loss of innocence and bliss. The fall is often accompanied by expulsion from a kind of paradise as penalty for disobedience and moral transgression
f—death and rebirth—the most common of all situational archetypes, this motif grows out of the parallel between the cycle of nature and the cycle of life. Thus, morning and springtime represent rebirth, birth, and youth; evening and winter suggest old age and death
g—nature vs. mechanistic world—nature is good while technology and society are often evil
h—battle between good and evil—obviously the battle between two primal forces. Mankind shows eternal optimism in continual portrayal of good triumphing over evil despite great odds
i—the un-healable wound—this wound is either physical or psychological and cannot be healed fully. This wound also indicated a loss of innocence. These wounds often drive the sufferer to desperate measures.
j—the ritual—the actual ceremonies the initiate experiences that will mark his rite of passage into another state. The importance of the ritual rites cannot be over stressed as they provide clear sign post for character’s role in society as well as our own position in the world.
k—the magic weapon—this symbolizes the extraordinary quality of the hero because no one else can wield the weapon or use it to its fullest potential. It is usually given by a mentor figure.
l—paradise—is seen as a place of peace, light, and beauty, echoing the primordial perfection of nature. It sometimes represents heaven itself and sometimes a stage on the road toward it. It may be depicted as a garden or, in the Christian tradition, as the New Jerusalem.
2—character archetypes—
a—the hero—Lord Reglan in the Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama, contends that this archetype is so well defined that the life of the protagonist can be clearly divided into a series of well—marked adventured which strongly suggest a ritualistic pattern. Reglan finds that traditionally the hero’s mother is pure, the circumstances of his conception are unusual, and at birth some attempt is made to kill him. He is, however, spirited away and reared by foster parents. We know almost nothing of his childhood, but upon reaching manhood he returns to his future kingdom. After a victory over the king or a wild beast, he marries a princess, becomes a king, after which he meets a mysterious death, often at the top of a hill. His body is not buried, but nevertheless, he has one of more holy sepulchers
b—the young man from the provinces—this hero is spirited away as a young man and raised by strangers. He later returns to his home and heritage where he is a stranger who can see new problems and solutions.
c—the initiates—these are young heroes or heroines, who prior to their quest, must endure some training and ceremony.
d—mentors—these individuals serve as teachers or counselors to the initiates. Sometimes they work as role models and often serve as a father or mother figure
e—mentor-pupil relationship—the mentor teaches by example the skills necessary to survive the quest
f—father-son conflict—tension often results from separation during childhood or from an external source when the individuals meet as men and where the mentor often has a higher place in the affections of the hero than the natural parent
g—hunting or group companions—loyal companions willing to face any number of perils in order to be together
h—loyal retainers—these individuals are somewhat like servants who are heroic themselves. Their duty is to protect the hero and reflect the nobility of the hero.
i—friendly beast—this shows that nature is on the side of the hero
j—the devil figure—evil incarnate, this character offers worldly goods, fame, or knowledge to the protagonist in exchange for possession of the soul
k—the evil figure with the ultimately good heart—a redeemable devil figure saved by the nobility or love of the hero
l—the scapegoat—an animal or more usually a human whose death in a public ceremony community. Their death often mistakes them a more powerful force in society than when they lived.
m—the outcast—a figure who is banished from a social group for some crime (real or imagined) against his fellow man. The outcast is usually destined to become a wanderer from place to place.
n—the woman figure—
1—the earth mother—symbolic of fruition, abundance, and fertility. This character traditionally offers spiritual and emotional nourishment to those with whom she comes in contact. Often depicted in earth colors and has large breasts and hips symbolic of her childbearing capabilities
2—the temptress—characterized by sensuous beauty, this woman is one to who the protagonist is physically attracted and who ultimately brings about his downfall
3—the platonic ideal—this woman is a source of inspiration and a spiritual ideal, for whom the protagonist or author has an intellectual rather than a physical attraction
4—the unfaithful wife—a woman married to a man she sees as dull or distant and is attracted to more virile or interesting men
5—the damsel in distress—the vulnerable woman who must be rescued by the hero. She often is used as a trap to ensnare the unsuspecting hero
6—the star-crossed lovers—these two characters are engaged in a love affair that is fated to end tragically for one or both due to the disapproval of the society, friends, or family or some tragic situation
o—the creature of nightmare—a monster usually summoned from the deepest, darkest part of the human psyche to threaten the lives of the hero/heroine. Often it is a perversion or desecration of the human body
3—symbolic archetypes—
a—light vs. dark—light usually suggests hope, renewal, or intellectual illumination; dark implies the unknown, ignorance, or despair
b—water vs. desert—because water is necessary to life and growth, it commonly appears as a birth or rebirth symbol. Water is used in baptismal services, which solemnizes spiritual births. Similarly, the appearance of rain in a work of literature can suggest a character’s spiritual rebirth.
c—heaven vs. hell—Man has traditionally associated parts of the universe not accessible to him with the dwelling places of the primordial forces that govern his world. The skies and mountain tops house the gods; the bowels of the earth contain diabolic forces that inhabit this universe
d—innate wisdom vs. educated stupidity—some characters exhibit wisdom and understanding of situations instinctively as opposed to those supposedly in charge. Loyal retainers often exhibit this wisdom as they accompany them on the journey.
e—haven vs. wilderness—places of safety contrast sharply against the dangerous wilderness. Heroes are often sheltered for a time to regain health and resources
f—supernatural intervention—the gods intervene on the side of the hero or sometimes against him
g—fire vs. ice—fire represents knowledge, light, life, rebirth; while ice like desert represents ignorance, darkness, sterility, and death
h—mandalas (India) and yantras (Tibet)—In Sanskrit, mandala means circle. Jung says that one of the most powerful religious symbols is the circle. He says that the circle is one of the most powerful religious symbols is the circle. He says that the circle is one of the greatest primordial images of mankind and that, in considering the symbol of the circle, we are analyzing the self. The circle represents totality, everything within the circle is one thing which is encircled, en-framed. But the temporal aspect of the circle is that you leave, go somewhere, and always come back. The circle suggests a complete totality, whether in time or space.
i—mazes or labyrinth—inner journey through the confusing and conflicting pathways of the mind until the seeker reaches the center and discovers the realities of his/her own nature
Archetypal symbols—
Numbers—
three—the Trinity ( Father, Son, Holy Ghost); mind, body, spirit; birth, life, death
four—Mankind—four limbs; four elements; four seasons; the ages of man
six—devil; evil
seven—Divinity (3) + Mankind (4) = relationship between man and God. Seven deadly sins; seven days of the week; seven days to create the world; seven stages of civilization; seven colors of the rainbow; seven gifts of the Holy Spirit
Shapes—
oval—woman, passivity
triangle—communication between heaven and earth, fire, the number 3, trinity, aspiration, movement upward, return to origins, gas, light, sight
square—pluralism, earth, firmness, stability, construction, material, solidity, the number 4
rectangle—most rational, most secure
cross—tree of life, axis of the world, struggle, martyrdom, orientation in space
circle—heaven, intellect, thought, sun, unity, perfection, eternity, oneness, celestial realm, hearing, sound
spiral—evolution of the universe, orbit, growth, deepening, cosmic motion, relationship between unity and multiplicity, macrocosm, breath, spirit, water
Colors—
dark—matter, germ, before existence, chaos
light—spirit, mortality, all, creative force, the direction East, spiritual thought
red—sunrise, birth, blood, fire, emotion, wounds, death, passion, sentiment, mother, anger, excitement, heat, physical stimulation
orange—fire, pride, ambition, egoism
green—earth, fertility, sensation, vegetation, death, water, nature, sympathy, adaptability, growth, envy
blue—clear sky, thinking, the day, the sea, height, depth, heaven, religious feeling, devotion, innocence, truth, psychic ability, spirituality, physical soothing and cooling
violet—water, nostalgia, memory, advanced spirituality
gold—majesty, sun, wealth, corn (life dependency), truth
silver—moon, wealth
Nature—
air—activity, creativity, breath, light, freedom, liberty, movement
ascent—height, transcendence, inward journey, increasing intensity
center—thought, unity, timelessness, paradise, creator, infinity, neutralizing opposites
descent—unconscious, potentialities of being, animal nature
duality (ying/yang)—opposites, complements, positive-negative, male-female, life-death
earth—passive, feminine, receptive, solid
fire—ability to transform, love, life, health, control, spiritual energy, regeneration, sun, God, passion
image—highest form of knowing, thought as a form
lake—mystery, depth, unconsciousness
crescent moon—change, transition
moon—master of women, vegetation
mountain—height, mass, loftiness, center of the world, ambition, goals
valley—depression, low-points, evil, unknown
sun—hero, son of Heaven, knowledge, the Divine eye, fire, life force, creative guiding force, brightness, splendor, active awakening, healing, resurrection, ultimate wholeness
unity—spirit, oneness, wholeness, transcendence, the source, harmony, revelation, active principle, a point, a dot, supreme power, completeness in itself, the divinity
water—passive, feminine, change
rivers—life force, life cycle
streams—life force, life cycle
stars—guidance
wind—Holy Spirit, life, messenger
ice/snow—coldness
clouds—mystery, sacred
mist—mystery, sacred
rain—life giver
steam—transformation to the Holy Spirit
volcano—evil, shadow
lightening—intuition, inspiration
tree—where we learn, tree of life, tree of knowledge
forest—evil, lost, fear
Objects—
feathers—lightness, speed
shadow—our dark side, evil, devil, materiality
masks—concealment
boats/rafts—safe passage
bridge—change, transformation
right hand—rectitude
left hand—deviousness
feet—stability, freedom
skeleton—mortality, vanity
heart—love, emotions
hourglass—passage of time
father time—time swiftly passing; death
Gems—
pearl—royalty, power, passion, tears of joy or sorrow
emerald—fertility, faith, wisdom
jade—perfection, immortality
sapphire—Heaven
diamond—permanence, incorruptibility
Animals—
deer (stag)—wisdom
ox—power, strength
spider—web of life
pig—gluttony
griffin—guardian on path to salvation
cat—domesticity
tiger—ferocity, protectiveness
eagle—Sky God
lion—valor, royalty
cockerel—pride, courage
horse—speed, power, mobility
unicorn—female, purity
goat—devil
bear—bravery, strength
bull—power, stubbornness
toad—witchcraft
white elephant—patience, wisdom, long memory
lamb—sacrifice, innocence, purity
Birds—flight, ascension
feathers—speed, lightness
dove—peace, Holy Spirit
peacock—pride
pelican—self-sacrifice
raven—prophecy
bat—darkness, chaos
Audience—the person or group of people for whom a piece of writing is intended. The purpose of a piece of literature is highly driven by the audience the author chooses to address.
Assonance—similar vowel sound in stressed syllables that end with different consonant sounds.
∙ That hoard and sleep and feed, and know not me. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, “Ulysses”
Caricature—an unsubtle, oversimplified, often clichéd and exaggerated presentation of a character, generally stressing only one aspect, so that the reader understands what the character represents. It is designed to make a person or a type of person seen ridiculous.
∙ Shakespeare Henry IV and The Merry Wives of Windsor—the character of Falstaff
Character—is a person or an animal that takes part in the action of a literary work. A main or major character is the most important character in a story, poem, or play. A minor character plays a lesser role but is necessary for the story to develop.
1—round character—a fully developed character in whom many traits are exhibited
∙ Walter Mitty in James Thurber’s “The Secret Life of Walter Mitty”
2—flat character—a one-sided or stereotypical character
∙ Montresor, the vengeful murderer, in Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Cask of Amontillado”
3—static character—a character who does not undergo a change
∙ the king in Frank R. Stockton’s “The Lady, or the Tiger?”
4—dynamic character—a character who changes or grows in some way during the course of a piece
∙ Sarah in Joanne Greenberg’s “And Sarah Laughed”
5–stock character—a stereotype, character types that occur repeatedly in written and visual stories and are easily recognizable by readers and viewers….(the jock, the greaser, the harlot, the nerd etc.)
Characterization—the process by which authors create memorable characters by describing or implying their attributes. Authors use two major methods of characterization—direct and indirect.
1—direct characterization—an author tells what the character is like—looks and actions
∙ “He was a tall, rawboned man with a bullet-shaped head, and he looked exactly like what he was—a deacon in a church.” “Before the End of Summer,” Grant Moss Jr.
2—indirect characterization—a writer reveals a character’s personality through his or her own appearance, words, actions, and effects on others. Sometimes the writer describes what other participants in the story say and think about the character. The reader draws his/her own conclusions about the character being analyzed.
Climax—the point of highest interest: the apex at which the reader makes the greatest emotional response. It is also used to designate the turning point in the action—the place at which the rising action reverses and becomes falling action.
∙ In Amy Tan’s “Rules of the Game,” the climax falls toward the end of the story when Meimei and her mother exchange harsh words and then Meimei runs away.
Colloquial—the use of slang or in-formalities in speech and writing
∙ The man, a dodgy customer with a shifty look in his eye, was clearly up to no good.
Conflict—The struggle which grows out of the interplay of the two opposing forces in a plot. At least one of the opposing forces is usually a person. This person, usually the protagonist, may be involved in conflicts of four different kinds:
1—against the forces of nature
2—against another person, usually the antagonist
3—against society as a force
4—against opposing elements within the person
5—against Fate or Destiny
∙ In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus’s conflicts with Polyphemus, Scylla and Charybdis, and the suitors are all external.
∙ In W.D. Wetherell’s “The Bass, the River, and Sheila Mant,” the narrator is torn between reeling in a fish (and losing the potential affections of Sheila) and letting
it go (and losing the catch of a lifetime), causing an internal conflict.
Connotation—the implications, inferences, or suggestive power of words, phrases, or figures of speech.
∙ The word din suggests noise that does not let up, to the point of being maddening or
deafening. Elie Wiesel, from NIGHT
Consonance—the use at the end of verses of words in which the final consonant in the stressed syllable agree but the vowels that precede them differ.
∙ … like a pair of thick socks… Jimmy Santiago Baca, “I Am Offering This Poem”
Denotation—the exact or dictionary meaning of a word without its emotional or suggestive associations.
∙ The denotation of the word politician is one who is professionally engaged in politics.
Description—a portrait, in words, of a person, place, or object. Descriptive writing use images that appeal to the five senses.
∙ The last graveyard flowers were blooming, and their smell drifted across the cotton field and through every room of our house, speaking softly the names of our dead. James Hurst, “The Scarlet Ibis”
Dialect—a form of language spoken by people in a particular region or group. Dialects differ in pronunciations, grammar, and word choice. Writers use dialect to make their characters seem realistic.
∙ The following lines from “A Red, Red Rose” by Robert Burns make use of Scottish dialect:
Till a’ seas gang dry, my dear, And the rocks melt wi’ the sun!
Dialogue—the conversation between people in poetry, plays, and stories. It is a basic source of the study of characters and of an author’s style. Although important in all types of literature, dialogue is perhaps most crucial in drama.
Diction—the choice and arrangement of -individual words- in phrases and images or in larger units such as poetic lines and sentences. Poetic diction has been interpreted as the use of non-traditional and specialized language for the purpose of distinguishing poetry from prose or ordinary speech.
Exposition—the exposition is the portion of the story which reveals important character background, setting, and initial conflict information.
Figurative Language (figures of speech)—writing or speech that is not meant to be taken literally. The many types of figurative language include metaphor, simile, and personification.
∙ He ran like a hare down the street.
Figurative meaning—is an implied meaning meant to be interpreted through clever connotation; it is the suggested by the context of words and by the images by an author.
Flashback—is a scene in a short story, novel, play, or narrative poem that interrupts the action to show an often important event that happened earlier.
∙ In “And Sarah Laughed,” the author Joanne Greenberg uses flashback when she relates Sarah’s memory of the day she first discovered that her baby was unable to hear.
Foreshadowing—is the author’s use of clues to hint at what might happen next in the story. It is used to build the reader’s sense of expectations or to create suspense.
∙ In Gerald Haslam’s “The Horned Toad,” the death of the toad and its burial in its natural environment foreshadow the death and burial of Grandma in the open country where she’d spent most of her life.
Hyperbole—A figure of speech in which conscious exaggeration is used without the intent of literal persuasion. It may be used to heighten effect, or it may be used to produce comic effect. Exaggeration or overstatement of an idea, attitude, emotion, or detail in a literary work.
∙ “A hundred strong men strained beneath his coffin.” “The Funeral,” Gordon Parks
Idiom—an expression whose meaning is different from the sum of the meanings of its individual words. Often it doesn’t make literal sense but is widely accepted within the society in which it is employed.
∙ Burning the midnight oil means “staying up late at night.”
Imagery—when words and phrases create vivid sensory experiences for the reader. Though sight imagery is most common, imagery may appeal to any of the senses. Good writers often attempt to appeal to several senses.
∙ Robert Lowell “Our Lady of Walsingham”
There once the penitents took off their shoes
And then waked barefoot the remaining mile;
And the small tress, a stream and hedgerows file
Slowly along the munching English lane,
Like cows to the old shrine, until you lose
Track of your dragging pain.
The stream flows down under the druid tree,
Shiloah’s whirlpools gurgle and make glad
The castle of God.
Irony—the general name given to literary techniques that involve surprising, interesting, or amusing contradictions.
1—verbal irony—words are used to suggest the opposite of their usual meanings.
2—dramatic irony—there is a contradiction between what a character thinks and what the reader or audience knows to be true
3—situation irony—an event occurs that directly contradicts the expectations of the characters, the reader, or the audience.
Literal Meaning—the surface meaning of a literary work derived by an emphasis on denotation, summary, and paraphrase.
Metaphor—a comparison between two unlike things. It is more abstract than a simile causing a deeper level of cognition to occur.
∙ [love] is a pot full of yellow corn to warm your belly in winter “I Am Offering This Poem,” Jimmy Santiago Baca
1–extended metaphor—a subject is spoken of, or written, as though it were something else. However, an extended metaphor differs from a regular metaphor in that several comparisons are made.
Mood—the feeling or atmosphere that a writer creates for the reader based on the tone they have established. Connotative words, sensory images, and figurative language contribute to the mood of a selection, as does the sound and rhythm of the language.
Moral—a lesson taught by a literary work. A fable usually ends with a moral that is directly stated. A poem, short story, novel, or essay often suggests a moral that is not directly stated. The reader must draw the moral from other elements.
Motif—a simple element that serves as a basis for an expanded narrative. Less strictly, it is a conventional situation, device, interest, or incident employed in folklore, fiction, or drama.
∙ Luck is a central motif of D.H. Lawrence’s “The Rocking-Horse Winner.”
Motivation—is the presentation of reasons and explanations for the actions of a character in any work of fiction. It results from a combination of the character’s temperament and moral nature with the circumstances in which a character is placed.
Narration—is writing that tells a story.
Narrator—a speaker or character who tells a story.
1—third-person narrator—one who stands outside the action and speaks
2—first-person narrator—one who tells a story and participates in its action
Onomatopoeia—Onomatopoeia is the use of words, which by their pronunciation, suggest their meaning. The words literally represent the sound they make. The use of a word or words which imitate the sound they stand for.
∙ Examples—buzz, hiss, dong, crackle, moo, pop, whiz, whoosh, zoom
Oxymoron—contradiction; two seemingly antithetic terms or ideas that are used together.
∙ Examples—sweet sorrow, jumbo shrimp, beginning expert, political honesty
Parallelism—the balancing of equal parts of a sentence, the repetition of a sentence pattern, or the repetition of words at the beginning of lines of poetry. When an author frequently stresses the equal parts of sentences, the word balanced is used to describe his style. The use of parallelism contributes to the musical quality of prose of poetry. Expressing similar or related ideas in similar grammatical structures. Also, when two elements within a work of prose seem to mirror one another.
∙ Between the conception / and the creation / Between the emotion / And the response / Falls the Shadow
“The Hollow Men,” T.S. Eliot
Personification—gives an inanimate object characteristics of life. Often adds to the emotion of a scene.
∙ And memory sleeps beneath the gray… And windless sky…
“Rain in My Heart,” Edgar Lee Masters
Plot—the sequence of events in which each event results from a previous one and causes the next. In most novels, dramas, short stories, and narrative poems, the plot usually involves both characters in a central conflict. The plot usually begins with an exposition that introduces the setting, the characters, and the basic situation. This is followed by rising action, in which the central conflict is introduced and developed. The conflict then increases until it reaches a high point of interest or suspense, the climax. The climax is followed by the falling action, or the end of the central conflict. Any events that occur during the falling action make up the resolution.
Point of View—refers to the narrative method used in a short story, novel, or nonfiction selection.
1—first person—The narrator is a character in the story, narrating the action as he or she understands it. First person point of view is indicated by the pronoun “I.”
2—third person—A third person narrator is not a participant in the action and thus maintains a certain distance from the characters. Third person point of view is indicated by he use of the pronouns “he,” “she,” “it,” and “they.”
3—third person omniscient—The narrator is all-knowing about the thoughts and feelings of the characters. With this point of view, the writer can reveal the emotional responses of all the characters and can comment at will on the events taking place.
4—third person limited—The writer presents events as experienced by only one character.
a—perspective—a study and evaluation of the effects of an author’s choice of communicator and his means of communication in a literary work that includes persona and point of view
Protagonist—The protagonist is the character in opposition to the antagonist, the chief character in a drama or work of fiction…often, the hero.
Pun—a play on the meaning of words; made possible by the often muddled nature of language.
∙ coals, colliers, choler, collar from ACT I, scene 1. Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet
∙ The phrase “happy medium” long precedes the Medium’s actual appearance as a character in the book A Wrinkle in Time, Madaline L’Engle
Refrain—Refrain is a group of words forming a phrase or a sentence and consisting of one or more lines repeated at intervals in a poem, usually at the end of a stanza.
∙ Sir Thomas Wyatt—
Disdain me not without desert,
Nor leave me not so suddenly;
Since well ye wot that in my heart
I mean ye not but honestly.
Disdain me not.
Refuse me not without cause why,
Nor think me not to be unjust;
Since that by lot of fantasy
This careful knot need knit I must.
Refuse me not…
Repetition/Anaphora—the use, more than once, of any element of language—a sound, word, phrase, clause, or sentence.
Rhetoric—describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
Rhetorical Devices and Fallacies—the skill of using spoken or written communication effectively; the art of guiding the reader or listener to agreement with the writer or speaker.
Ethos/Logos/Pathos- the three major appeals through which a communicator influences, changes, or moves a receiver of the message.
* Ethos- The establishment of a communicator’s credibility through skill, talent, experience, education, and ongoing morality or believability.
* Logos- The use of logic/sound reasoning by a communicator to convince the receiver of the message to agree with their assertions.
* Pathos-The use of emotion by a communicator, to stir the hearts and minds of the receiver to action, changed viewpoint or sympathetic stand.
1—analogy—making clear a concept or idea by showing its similar to a more familiar concept.
2—analysis of cause—identifying the forces responsible for an effect.
3—alternatives—considering of other options.
4—appeal—an address to the audience usually through the pronoun YOU or WE used to link the speaker or writer to listener or reader.
5—assertion—to suggest for consideration as true or possible.
6—antithesis—a statement of purpose opposed to an earlier assertion or thesis.
7—anticipate an objection—to anticipate an objection, addressing it before anyone else can raise the objection.
8—ad hominem—to attack another person’s argument as weak because of a human falling that is not logically part of the argument.
9—ad misericordiam—an appeal for sympathy.
10—ad populum—appeal to the crowd.
11—ad vericundiam—an appeal to authority.
12—composition—arguing that a group must have the same qualities or characteristics as its members.
13—concession—an acknowledgment of objections to a proposal.
14—consequences of events—listing or indicating what resulted from a particular event or condition.
15—contradictory premises—the main premises contradict each other.
16—correction of erroneous views of statement—pointing out where another person’s observations needs modification or correction.
17—corrective measures—proposing measures to eliminate undesirable conditions.
18—description—the enumeration of characteristics of objects that belong to the same class.
19—definition—to define a concept like “excessive violence” to help resolve a question by narrowing or clarifying meaning.
20—deduction—arguing from a general point to a particular point or application.
21—direct address—to speak to directly, remove any separation
speaker and audience.
22—division—arguing that an individual must have the same qualities or characteristics of the group.
23—dicto simpliciter—an argument based on an unqualified generalization.
24—either/or fallacy—requires absolutes which do not allow for intermediate cases; very clear statements or choices.
25—emotional appeal—a speaker’s or writer’s effort to engage feelings in the audience or reader.
26—equivocation—using the same term with a different meaning in the same argument.
27—extended metaphor—a protracted metaphor which makes a series of parallel comparisons throughout the speech or writing.
28—false analogy—wrongful comparisons of dissimilar situations, conditions, or events.
29—faulty dilemma—the major premise presents a choice that does not exhaust the possibilities.
30—guilt or innocence by association—providing examples that prove the guilt or innocence of a person based on his/her actions, beliefs, or motivations.
31—hypothesis contrary to the fact—beginning with a premise that is not necessarily true and then drawing conclusions from it.
32—inquiry as introduction—setting an essay in motion by raising a question and suggesting that the answer may be interesting or important.
33—illustration of ways to correct a condition—create specific examples to correct a condition or situation and give very clear, concise details.
34—non-sequitur—the conclusion does not follow in logic from the preceding argument.
35—over generalizing or hasty generalization—too few or too many instances are presented to reach an accurate conclusion.
36—premise and the common ground—the terms of the premise must be accepted as true by the reader or the audience.
37—rebuttal—final opposition to an assertion; disprove or refute the ideas or opinions of another person.
38—reduce to the absurd—to show the foolishness of an argument by taking the argument to its logical conclusion.
39—self-evident truth—proceeding from an unwarranted assumption to a foregone conclusion (time is money)
40—specious reasoning—having only apparent logic; not truly logical but presented to be as such.
41—thesis—a statement of purpose or intent.
42—under/over statement—to say considerably more or less than a condition warrants; usually applied for ironic or unexpected contrast.
Rhetorical Shift—a shift from tone, attitude, etc. Some signal words for a shift include: however, but, even though, although.
Rhetorical Question—a question, that when asked, is meant to prompt the listener/reader to critical thinking. It is not meant to be answered by the recipient, much greater than that, it sparks deep, profound, even imaginative thought.
Sarcasm—a form of verbal irony in which, under the guise of praise, a caustic and bitter expression of strong and personal disapproval is given. Sarcasm is often personal, jeering, intended to hurt, and is intended as a sneering taunt.
Sensory Language—writing or speech that appeals to one or more of the five senses.
Setting—the time and place of the action. The setting includes all the details of a place and time—the year, the time of day, even the weather. The place may be a specific country, state, region, community, neighborhood, building, institution, or home. Details such as dialect, clothing, customs, and modes of transportation are often used to establish the setting.
Shift—a change in tone, mood, setting, or characterization that affects the movement of the selection.
Simile—a comparison between two unlike things using the words like or as; more simple and concrete than a metaphor.
∙ The rugby ball was like a giant egg, which he held carefully while he ran.
Speaker—the imaginary voice assumed by the writer of a poem.
Stanza—a group of poetic lines arranged into a pattern generally suggested by a rhyme scheme. Stanzas are roughly the equivalent of paragraphs in prose.
Stream of consciousness—an author’s representation of the flow of inner thoughts, feelings, and memories of a character, regardless of logical order and transitions. This approach is based on the assumption that our half-conscious and even conscious thoughts and feeling do not come to us in neat patterns or in carefully constructed plots.
∙ William Faulkner The Sound and the Fury—Caddy uncaught me and we crawled through. Uncle Maury said to not let anybody see us, so we better stoop over, Caddy said. Stoop over, Benjy. Like this, see. We stooped over and crossed the garden, where the flowers rasped and rattled against us. The ground was hard. We climbed the fence, where the pigs were grunting and snuffing. I expect they’re sorry because one of them got killed today, Caddy said. The ground was hard, churned and knotted. Keep your hands in your pockets, Caddy said. Or they’ll get froze. You don’t want your hands froze on Christmas, do you?
Structure—the basic organization or arrangement of events, details, words, or parts in a literary work.
Style—an author’s choice of words and their arrangements in various patterns of syntax, imagery, and rhythm.
Suspense—a feeling of anxious uncertainty about the outcome of events in a literary work.
Symbol—any object, happening, person, or place which stands not only for itself but also for something else, usually with a universal, societal, or cultural meaning.
∙ The lamb is a symbol of innocence in William Blake’s “The Lamb.”
∙ To Mr. Shimada and his faithful employees in Yoshiko Uchida’s “Of Dry Goods and Black Bow Ties,” the bow tie is a symbol of dignity, honesty, and respectability.
Syntax- The author’s style created by sentence structure, which frames the context and drives the true meaning home to the reader/listener.
Technique—any resources or any combinations of means used by an author to shape his material, such as his choice and arrangement of words (style), his organization of his material (structure), or his handling of characters (characterization).
Theme—the main idea of message a writer expresses in a work of literature. It is a writer’s perception about life or humanity shared with a reader. Themes are seldom stated directly and may reveal themselves only through careful reading and analysis.
∙ A theme of Doris Lessing’s “A Mild Attack of the Locusts” is that life goes on.
Tone— the attitude a writer takes toward a subject. It might be humorous, serious, bitter, angry, or detached among other possibilities.
∙ The tone of Thomas Hardy’s “Ah, Are You Digging on My Grave?” is one of bittersweet humor.
Understatement—the deliberate playing down of an emotion, thought, judgment, or situation. When emotion is involved, an author will sometimes employ understatement to imply that the emotion is too powerful or too vast to express. The lack of stress creates an ironic difference between what the author actually says and what the circumstances would really allow him to say.
∙ In “Field Trip, Naomi Shihab Nye uses understatement when she says that the woman who cut off her finger was “distracted.”